This article discusses the increasing shortage of workers in Spain, a phenomenon that goes beyond recovery from the pandemic and long-term challenges for employment policy in general. Describes the determinants of these shortages, insisting on the structural factors, such as digitalisation, demographic ageing and the ecological transition. Lists the main business strategies to address the lack of manpower and stresses the crucial role that can and must play the public employment services to manage this new scenario of employment in the long term. We reflect also on the role of social dialogue and the urgent need for strengthening the statistical information on vacancies.

Since the end of the 1970s of the last century, high unemployment has marked strongly to the spanish labour market. In that context, the shortage of workers in certain occupations or in certain sectors, had been used as an occasional problem. Precisely because of high unemployment, the problems in filling vacancies were tried in normal, rather, as a matter of misalignment: these workers, but there were in another part or in another territory or came from different sectors and their adaptation to available vacancies could prove costly. Therefore, the shortage of workers in a wide range of occupations and sectors seems to have a surprise to many analysts, particularly during the period to end the crisis of the pandemic of COVID- 19 (Bad, 2024 ).

In fact, the increase in the number of vacancies was taking place in spain since before the pandemic. However, during the “ freeze ” on the applied economics in large part of the world (Bad, 2021 ) many companies have seen their needs of workers were still vacant or cost much longer fill the vacancies (Eurofound, 2022 ). Let us say that when the economy descongeló many workers who were often available were no longer there. The economic dislocation that created the pandemic was part of these workers to know other sectors and other occupations that were more attractive, either in terms of wages or working conditions. The tourist sector and, in particular, hotel, are among the sectors most affected by this move miento (Eurofound, 2023 ). However, this situation does not seem to be only related to the reactivation of the demand for labour after the pandemic and the evolution of the economic cycle, but also with structural changes of the economies and, indeed, changes in the preferences of workers (Cause et al., 2022 ).

Ultimately, the shortage of labour current combines two different types of determinants: long-term trends already present before the pandemic and cyclical changes related to the reactivation of the economy following the crisis of the pandemic. After examining such determinants and relate to the policies of the labour market, will be reviewed how businesses operate their needs of workers and the means that often used to fill their vacancies. The article ends with a series of reflections on the issue of the role of public employment services in this new scenario of labour markets in the present and in the near future.

The shortage of labour is manifested in two ways (Brunello and Wruuck, 2021 ): a lack of sufficient people with the skills required to effectively carry out the job and the mismatch between the skills of workers and those required for the vacant post. The shortage of expertise occurs when the demand for jobs exceeded the supply of skilled persons, while the gap that can be no means sufficient candidates, but its powers do not coincide with the needs of the outstanding vacancies on companies.

Tend to be brought a number of factors contribute to the shortage of workers (bad, 2024 ): new technologies (digitization and artificial intelligence); the decline in labour participation by the demographic ageing; the discrepancy between education and business needs; and the transition to a low carbon economy that would require powers ” in “ green jobs. Not all of these factors have to be equally important at all times. Solutions include prioritizing internal development of specialized expertise and adopt a competency-based recruitment rather than generic qualifications.

The dual structure of the labour market, with a high use of temporary contracts, reduces the formation of workers, because the companies invest less in employees with high rotation (Albert et al., 2005 ) In fact, it is also the case that if changes are introduced to promote the use of the open-ended contract workers will receive more training, as found Bratti et al ( 2021 ) in the case of Italy after the so-called Fornero Act.

Something that often do not usually taken into account to understand the phenomenon of the shortage of workers and measures to reduce it is the functioning of the labour market, in particular, the possibility of imperfect competition in the demand side, i.e., monopsonio. The existence of market power of companies in the labour market leads to low wages and a volume of employment is lower than would a market with more competition. The low wages may discourage workers to accept jobs in these sectors, making improvements in skills are insufficient without improvements in working conditions ¹ .

Finally, the recent labour reform, with its restrictions on the timing and its possible impact declining turnover, there may be introduced incentives for companies that invest more in their workers through more specific training, as the case of Italy has shown that can happen when there was a shift in the sense of companies to have more incentives to use the indefinite contracts instead of the storms (Bratti et al., 2011 ).

Given the scarcity of workers, raised a number of policies that should address the various determinants referred to the shortage of workers. They can be divided into two broad groups: policies aimed at increasing the number of workers potentially available and those which focused on the scarcity or mismatch of competences.

In situations of scarcity of persons to fill the positions, we would have policies that increase the supply of labour. These policies focus on increasing the number of workers in certain occupations. This may include measures to increase the participation of groups that often have low participation (such as women or older workers) or attracting immigration for certain jobs, both qualified (for example, in health professions) and non-qualified (for example, in agriculture).

In the case of shortage or skills mismatch, policies would be addressed to invest in improving the skills of the labour force. We Have here the continuous training and lifelong learning throughout life, but also systems skills certification (for example, the so-called “ micro-credenciales ”) to facilitate mobility of workers to posts where they are required such powers and cheaper selection process for companies. The policies to address the shortage vary according to their origin. To mismatch, requires improving labor intermediation. If it is a widespread deficiency, is needed to adapt the competences of the unemployed to vacancies through skill enhancement (8) and updating of skills and recycling (reskilling).

We would like to point out that at present, the shortage of workers is a problem that covers both high-income countries such as mics (Ernst and Frey, 2024 ) and covers all potentially productive fabric, including small and medium-sized enterprises. In fact, the majority of small and medium-sized enterprises ² they say they may face a shortage of candidates with the skills required for vacancies and difficulties in finding and retaining qualified workers. Therefore, the filling of vacancies is a problem of potential interest for all types of businesses and in practically all sectors, although the causes of their problems of scarcity.

The adjustment in response to a shortage of labour can be produced between the different tracks that can be highlighted (Ernst and Frey, 2024 ): investment in training to reduce the deficit of competences; improve the process of identification and selection of candidates; salary increases to the post more attractive to potential candidates; flexible working practices.

The problem for companies in the first two options is that only compensates them in place in the case of vacancies more “ useful ”, i.e. those of the expected high level of productivity. In particular, investment in training funded by the company can enhance the likelihood that the worker is moved to another company, so that, in general, the company has especially incentive to finance specific human capital in the company, but not outside it.

With regard to the improvement of the process of identification and selection of candidates presupposes spending more resources to fill the vacancy. This can be attractive for the company in jobs requiring high qualifications, but not in others. However, these increased costs would be more private brokering, but not through the intermediary service. Here, the role of public employment services can be crucial, whenever possible, make a child-sensitive management vacancies. In short, it is to understand the public employment services not only as a mechanism to search for employment of unemployed, but also as a mechanism to identify candidates for vacancies that companies have.

With regard to salary increases, it is a way to encourage potential candidates and a way to attract more productive workers, with which the company that would be rewarded wages up to the long term. It is also the appropriate option in the event of a monopsonio in the labour market, in cases in which the companies are enjoying some degree of market power in relation to the demand for labour. According to Groiss and Sonderman ( 2024 ), european companies that provide greater shortage pay a premium pay higher. In the same vein, Fang ( 2009 ) in an empirical analysis of canadian companies is a positive relationship between the vacancy rates difficult to fill in a year and the rising real wages on average in the following year.

In connection with the adoption of flexible working practices, would be the option to distribute the tasks of vacancies among workers and thus may not fill the vacancy. There are companies that, to the difficulties to fill the vacancy, contains a number of actions such as rotation of posts, increased overtime, greater use of part-time or temporary. In this regard, too, the largest-shortage of labour tend to engage less than the average. This suggests that, despite wage increases, companies may be difficult to meet their staffing requirements due to inefficiencies of pairing or insufficient supply of labour. The fast growing companies facing a shortage of labour recruited unless the comparable companies without such a shortage.

The study referred to before Fang ( 2009 ) stresses that the way in which, indeed, firms to resolve the problems faced by a shortage of workers is with short-term responses, more flexible working hours and overtime are increasing, usually without salary improvements.

While the shortage of workers has become a subject of social and economic debate during the output of the pandemic of COVID- 19 the extension of this phenomenon, there was already since some years previously, affecting many countries of all kinds and most sectors. Thus, it is closely linked to the economic crisis generated by the pandemic; in fact, responds to the large long-term trends that are transforming the markets around the world. Spain is not just one more example of the extension of the shortage of workers and does not seem to be of the countries most affected by it, especially in comparison with other european countries (Bad, 2024 ).

The structural factors behind the shortage of workers have to do with technological change related to the digitization (and, increasingly, artificial intelligence), demographic ageing and the transition towards an economy with lower levels of carbon emissions. Each of these structural factors can have a different impact on the apparent shortage. Thus, the technical progress would be doing an increased demand for more workers expertise in that technology, but also the demand for workers of a variety of occupations that, in addition to the tasks that have already played, now must have a domain of some aspects of such technologies. Therefore, it is not merely of the shortage of people with certain levels of training, but existing posts are transformed with the incorporation of new tasks. on the demographic ageing, a decrease of people in crowds of people in all labour markets due to the transit to retirement of a large part the population, which decreases the amount of workers in many different occupations and appear difficult to speedily fill these gaps in more and more occupations; however, at the same time, the ageing assumes greater demand for health occupations and

Naturally, the way in which are organized and regulate the labour market affects the way (and effectiveness) that every economy is facing this new scenario of a shortage of workers. The market power of employers (i.e., monopsonio) can lead to worse results as labour, employment and wages are lowest, at the same time associated with a minor child labour mobility and training for workers, which hinders the adjustment for companies themselves and for unemployed workers. Facilitate training and learning throughout life is an important tool for improving the closure of the vacancies profitably to companies and workers, but do not think that, alone, businesses can resolve this issue. Greater integration of the training schemes with businesses (particularly in vocational training, but also at the university) would be a very important point of any strategy to reduce the shortage of labour. The mobility of workers in employment is also an important channel of adjustment to the labour market imbalances. However, this mobility tends to diminish with the ageing population, and that we must think mechanisms for the protection of workers to move between jobs.

Institutional gaps between countries affect all issues identified. It Is to highlight two elements that could significantly enhance the quality of results: public employment services and social dialogue. Firstly, the place where the public employment services should be central in the management of the shortage of workers. Now, companies only have incentives to manage vacancies through public employment services in the case of vacancies that have already tried to cover unsuccessfully by all means. this way, public service employment end up running vacancies more difficult to cover. In Addition, by the hand of workers, are also more incentives to be in public employment services the unemployed more difficult to place, because the public employment services are always there when you have already failed all other avenues for finding a job. Also for this side, public service employment end up to manage the unemployed more difficult to drop. In short, has been one of the worst scenarios, which are struggling with vacancies more difficult to meet with the more difficult to drop. It is not a simple challenge, but we need to move towards the empowerment of the role of business services of public employment services. The isolated strategies of firms to fill vacancies focus particularly in the short term, as we have seen, when the great issue of the current shortage of workers is responding to large economic and social transformations of the long term. Public employment services are an essential tool of any strategy to address the consequences for companies and workers in the new labour market.

Secondly, social dialogue can be used to manage the current imbalances, both in the original bipartite of collective bargaining to adapt to the particular needs of companies and sectors, as in the tripartite plus own national agreements affecting the entire labour market. Bearing in mind that the shortage of work can be difficult to tackle in labour markets with monopsonio, collective bargaining at different levels can provide better results for the whole of the labour market.

Finally, it should be noted that Spain suffers a serious problem of quality of sources of statistical information on vacancies, which makes it difficult to know the true level of vacancies in spain and is a very serious obstacle to make diagnoses of sectoral or regional levels. It is No exaggeration to say that no quality there is no possible planning of effective policies.

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